Cell apoptosis, sometimes called programmed cell death, is a cellular self-destruction method to remove old and damaged cells during development and aging to protect cells from external disturbances and maintain homeostasis. Apoptosis also occurs as a defense mechanism such as in immune reactions or when cells are damaged by disease or noxious agents.

Apoptosis is controlled by many genes and involves two fundamental pathways: the extrinsic pathway, which transmits death signals by the death receptor (DR), and the intrinsic or mitochondrial pathway. The extrinsic apoptotic pathway is activated by the binding of the death ligand to DRs, including FasL, TNF-α, and TRAIL, on the plasma membrane. The DR, adaptor protein (FADD), and associated apoptosis signaling molecule (caspase-8) form the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC), thus leading to the activation of the effector caspase cascade (caspase-3, -6, and -7). The mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptosis pathway is regulated by Bcl-2 family proteins, including proapoptotic (Bid, Bax, Bak) and antiapoptotic proteins (Bcl-2, Bcl-xL).

Abnormalities in cell apoptosis can be a significant component of diseases such as cancer, autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome, AIDS, ischemia, and neurode-generative diseases. These diseases may benefit from artificially inhibiting or activating apoptosis. A short list of potential methods of anti-apoptotic therapy includes stimulation of the IAP (inhibitors of apoptosis proteins) family of proteins, caspase inhibition, PARP (poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase) inhibition, stimulation of the PKB/Akt (protein kinase B) pathway, and inhibition of Bcl-2 proteins.

Ferroptosis and necroptosis are recently recognized forms of regulated cell death that differs considerably from apoptosis. Misregulated ferroptosis or necroptosis have also been implicated in multiple physiological and pathological processes, including cancer cell death, neurotoxicity, neurodegenerative diseases, etc.

References:
[1] Susan Elmore. Toxicol Pathol. 2007; 35(4): 495–516.
[2] Cao L, et al. J Cell Death. 2016 Dec 29;9:19-29.
[3] Dasgupta A, et al. Int J Mol Sci. 2017 Jan; 18(1): 23.
[4] Xie Y, et al. Cell Death Differ. 2016 Mar;23(3):369-79.


Anti-infection >
Arenavirus Bacterial CMV Enterovirus Filovirus Fungal HBV HCV HIV HSV Influenza Virus Parasite Reverse Transcriptase RSV SARS-CoV
Antibody-drug Conjugate >
ADC Cytotoxin ADC Linker Drug-Linker Conjugates for ADC PROTAC-linker Conjugate for PAC
Apoptosis >
Apoptosis Bcl-2 Family c-Myc Caspase DAPK Ferroptosis IAP MDM-2/p53 PKD RIP kinase Survivin Thymidylate Synthase TNF Receptor
Autophagy >
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Antifolate APC ATM/ATR Aurora Kinase Casein Kinase CDK Checkpoint Kinase (Chk) CRISPR/Cas9 Deubiquitinase DNA Alkylator/Crosslinker DNA-PK DNA/RNA Synthesis Eukaryotic Initiation Factor (eIF) G-quadruplex Haspin Kinase HDAC HSP IRE1 Kinesin LIM Kinase (LIMK) Microtubule/Tubulin Mps1 Nucleoside Antimetabolite/Analog p97 PAK PARP PERK Polo-like Kinase (PLK) PPAR RAD51 ROCK Sirtuin SRPK Telomerase TOPK Topoisomerase Wee1
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Metabolic Enzyme/Protease >
15-PGDH 5 alpha Reductase 5-Lipoxygenase Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase Acyltransferase Adenosine Deaminase Adenosine Kinase Aldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) Aldose Reductase Aminopeptidase Angiotensin-converting Enzyme (ACE) ATGL ATP Citrate Lyase Carbonic Anhydrase Carboxypeptidase Cathepsin CETP COMT Cytochrome P450 Dipeptidyl Peptidase Dopamine β-hydroxylase E1/E2/E3 Enzyme Elastase Enolase FAAH FABP Factor Xa Farnesyl Transferase Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS) FXR Glucokinase GSNOR Gutathione S-transferase HCV Protease Hexokinase HIF/HIF Prolyl-Hydroxylase HIV Integrase HIV Protease HMG-CoA Reductase (HMGCR) HSP Indoleamine 2,3-Dioxygenase (IDO) Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (IDH) Lactate Dehydrogenase LXR MAGL Mineralocorticoid Receptor Mitochondrial Metabolism MMP Nampt NEDD8-activating Enzyme Neprilysin PAI-1 PDHK PGC-1α Phosphatase Phosphodiesterase (PDE) Phospholipase Procollagen C Proteinase Proteasome Pyruvate Kinase RAR/RXR Renin ROR Ser/Thr Protease SGK Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase (SCD) Thrombin Tryptophan Hydroxylase Tyrosinase Xanthine Oxidase
Neuronal Signaling >
5-HT Receptor AChE Adenosine Kinase Amyloid-β Beta-secretase CaMK CGRP Receptor COMT Dopamine Receptor Dopamine Transporter FAAH GABA Receptor GlyT iGluR Imidazoline Receptor mAChR Melatonin Receptor Monoamine Oxidase nAChR Neurokinin Receptor Opioid Receptor Serotonin Transporter γ-secretase
NF-κB >
NF-κB IKK Keap1-Nrf2 MALT1
PI3K/Akt/mTOR >
Akt AMPK ATM/ATR DNA-PK GSK-3 MELK mTOR PDK-1 PI3K PI4K PIKfyve PTEN
PROTAC >
PROTAC E3 Ligase Ligand-Linker Conjugate Ligand for E3 Ligase PROTAC Linker PROTAC-linker Conjugate for PAC
Protein Tyrosine Kinase/RTK >
Ack1 ALK Bcr-Abl BMX Kinase Btk c-Fms c-Kit c-Met/HGFR Discoidin Domain Receptor DYRK EGFR Ephrin Receptor FAK FGFR FLT3 IGF-1R Insulin Receptor IRAK Itk PDGFR PKA Pyk2 ROS Src Syk TAM Receptor Trk Receptor VEGFR
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Casein Kinase ERK Gli GSK-3 Hedgehog Hippo (MST) JAK Notch Oct3/4 PKA Porcupine ROCK sFRP-1 Smo STAT TGF-beta/Smad Wnt YAP β-catenin γ-secretase
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Vitamin D Related >
VD/VDR
Others >
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(-)-perillic acid

(S)-(-)-Perillic acid is a terpenoid plant extract with antimicrobial and anticancer activities. (S)-(-)-Perillic acid induces cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, and increases the levell of Bax, Bcl2, p21 and caspase-3 proteins. (S)-(-)-Perillic acid can be used for cancer and infection research[1][2][3].

  • CAS Number: 23635-14-5
  • MF: C10H14O2
  • MW: 166.21700
  • Catalog: Bacterial
  • Density: 1.068g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 284.9ºC at 760mmHg
  • Melting Point: 129-131ºC(lit.)
  • Flash Point: 134ºC

bleomycin A5

Bleomycin A5 (Pingyangmycin) is an orally active glycopeptide antibiotics. Bleomycin A5 has a role as an antineoplastic agent, an Apoptosis inducer and a bacterial metabolite[1][2].

  • CAS Number: 11116-32-8
  • MF: C57H89N19O21S2
  • MW: 1440.561
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.6±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

ML132

ML132 (NCGC 00185682) is a potent and selective caspase 1 inhibitor with an IC50 of 0.316 nM.

  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

(1S,3S,7S,10R,11S,12S,16R)-3-[(1E)-2-[2-(Aminomethyl)-4-thiazolyl]-1-methylethenyl]-7,11-dihydroxy-8,8,10,12,16-pentamethyl-4,17-dioxabicyclo[14.1.0]heptadecane-5,9-dione

BMS 310705 (21-Aminoepothilone B) is an analog of Epothilone B (HY-17029), targeting to malignancies such as ovarian, renal, bladder, and lung carcinoma. BMS 310705 induces significant apoptosis via mitochondrial-mediated pathway[1].

  • CAS Number: 280578-49-6
  • MF: C27H42N2O6S
  • MW: 522.69700
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.16
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

vitexilactone

Vitexilactone is a diterpenoid that can be isolated from the leaves of Vitex negundo L. Vitexilactone shows antimicrobial activity towards E. coli. Vitexilactone induces cell apoptosis and inhibits cell cycle of cancer cells. Vitexilactone can be used for the research of cancer[1][2].

  • CAS Number: 61263-49-8
  • MF: C22H34O5
  • MW: 378.502
  • Catalog: Bacterial
  • Density: 1.1±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 501.5±40.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: 166.6±20.8 °C

SC-99

A novel selective STAT3 inhibitor that inhibits JAK2-STAT3 activation but has no effects on other transcription factors such as NF-κB, and kinases such as AKT, ERK, and c-Src; inhibits STAT3 phosphorylation, dimerization and nuclear translocation, downregulates STAT3-modulated gene expression and induces MM cell apoptosis; delays tumor growth in MM xenograft models (30mg/kg); orally active.

  • CAS Number: 882290-02-0
  • MF: C15H8Cl2FN3O
  • MW: 336.147
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.38±0.1 g/cm3(Predicted)
  • Boiling Point: 459.4±55.0 °C(Predicted)
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

Malic Enzyme inhibitor ME1

Malic enzyme inhibitor ME1 (ME1) is a multifunctional protein involved in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, NADPH production, glutamine metabolism, and lipogenesis[1]. Malic enzyme inhibitor ME1 regulates one of the main pathways that provide nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), which is essential for cancer cell growth through maintenance of redox balance and biosynthesis processes in the cytoplasm. Malic enzyme inhibitor ME1 disrupts metabolism in cancer cells and inhibits cancer cell growth by inducing senescence or apoptosis [2].

  • CAS Number: 522649-59-8
  • MF: C20H21N3O3
  • MW: 351.40
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

6-Gingerol

[6]-Gingerol is an active compound isolated from Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc), exhibits a variety of biological activities including anticancer, anti-inflammation, and anti-oxidation.

  • CAS Number: 23513-14-6
  • MF: C17H26O4
  • MW: 294.386
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.1±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 453.0±35.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: 30 - 32ºC
  • Flash Point: 159.0±19.4 °C

Azathioprine Sodium

Azathioprine (BW 57-322) sodium is an orally active immunosuppressive agent. Azathioprine can be converted in vivo to the active metabolite 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP). Azathioprine has myelosuppressive effects and induces apoptosis[1][3].

  • CAS Number: 55774-33-9
  • MF: C9H6N7NaO2S
  • MW: 299.244
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

CBL0137 HCl

CBL0137 hydrochloride is an inhibitor of the histone chaperone, FACT. CBL0137 hydrochloride can also activate p53 and inhibits NF-κB with EC50s of 0.37 and 0.47 µM, respectively.

  • CAS Number: 1197397-89-9
  • MF: C21H25ClN2O2
  • MW: 372.88800
  • Catalog: MDM-2/p53
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

Polygalacin D

Polygalacin D (PGD) is a bioactive compound isolated from Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) with anticancer and anti-proliferative properties.PGD suppresses the expression of the IAP family of proteins including survivin, cIAP-1 and cIAP-2 and blocks the PI3K/Akt pathway by inhibiting the phosphorylation of GSK3β, Akt and the expression of PI3K. Polygalacin D induces apoptosis[1]

  • CAS Number: 66663-91-0
  • MF: C57H92O27
  • MW: 1209.324
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.5±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

Aspirin

Aspirin is a non-selective and irreversible inhibitor of COX-1 and COX-2 with IC50s of 5 and 210 μg/mL.

  • CAS Number: 50-78-2
  • MF: C9H8O4
  • MW: 180.157
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.3±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 321.4±25.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: 134-136 °C(lit.)
  • Flash Point: 131.2±16.7 °C

Antitumor agent-100

Antitumor agent-100 (compound A6), an apoptosis inducer and molecular glue, shows superior anti-tumor activity[1].

  • CAS Number: 2841750-32-9
  • MF: C17H14ClN3O
  • MW: 311.77
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

Anticancer agent 52

Anticancer agent 52 is a potent anticancer agent. Anticancer agent 52 shows in vitro cytotoxicity. Anticancer agent 52 induces apoptosis. Anticancer agent 52 shows antitumor effect. Anticancer agent 52 has the potential for the research of bladder cancer[1].

  • CAS Number: 2388983-64-8
  • MF: C50H43Br2N2P
  • MW: 862.67
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

PROTAC eEF2K degrader-1

PROTAC eEF2K degrader-1 (Compound 11l) is an eEF2K-Targeting PROTAC small molecule that induces apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells. PROTAC eEF2K degrader-1 mediates eEF2K degradation[1].

  • CAS Number: 2458170-54-0
  • MF: C31H33N9O11
  • MW: 707.65
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

Sodium citrate

Citric acid trisodium is a natural preservative and food tartness enhancer. Citric acid trisodium induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and S phase. Citric acid trisodium cause oxidative damage of the liver by means of the decrease of antioxidative enzyme activities. Citric acid trisodium causes renal toxicity in mice[1][2][3].

  • CAS Number: 68-04-2
  • MF: C6H5Na3O7
  • MW: 258.069
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.008 g/mL at 20 °C
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: 300°C
  • Flash Point: N/A

kb-NB142-70

kb NB 142-70 is a potent PKD inhibitor, with IC50s of 28.3, 58.7 and 53.2 nM for PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3, respectively. kb NB 142-70 also has antitumor activity.

  • CAS Number: 1233533-04-4
  • MF: C11H9NO2S2
  • MW: 251.325
  • Catalog: PKD
  • Density: 1.5±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 601.9±55.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: 317.8±31.5 °C

PDK4-IN-1 hydrochloride

PDK4-IN-1 hydrochloride is an anthraquinone derivative and a potent and orally active pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) inhibitor with an IC50 value of 84 nM. PDK4-IN-1 hydrochloride potently represses cellular transformation and cellular proliferation and induces apoptosis. PDK4-IN-1 hydrochloride has antidiabetic, anticancer and anti-allergic activity[1].

  • CAS Number: 2310262-11-2
  • MF: C22H20ClN3O2
  • MW: 393.87
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

1-Alaninechlamydocin

1-Alaninechlamydocin, a cyclic tetrapeptide, is a potent HDAC inhibitor (IC50=6.4 nM). 1-Alaninechlamydocin induces G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in MIA PaCa-2 cells[1].

  • CAS Number: 141446-96-0
  • MF: C27H36N4O6
  • MW: 512.598
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.3±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 871.9±65.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: 481.1±34.3 °C

BO-264

BO-264 is a highly potent and orally active transforming acidic coiled-coil 3 (TACC3) inhibitor with an IC50 of 188 nM and a Kd of 1.5 nM. BO-264 specifically blocks the function of FGFR3-TACC3 fusion protein. BO-264 induces spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC)-dependent mitotic arrest, DNA damage and apoptosis. BO-264 has broad-spectrum antitumor activity[1].

  • CAS Number: 2408648-20-2
  • MF: C18H19N5O3
  • MW: 353.38
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

2-Deoxy-D-glucose-d1

2-Deoxy-D-glucose-d1 is the deuterium labeled 2-Deoxy-D-glucose. 2-Deoxy-D-glucose is a glucose analog that acts as a competitive inhibitor of glucose metabolism, inhibiting glycolysis via its actions on hexokinase[1][2].

  • CAS Number: 188004-07-1
  • MF: C6H11DO5
  • MW: 165.16
  • Catalog: HSV
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

licoricidin

Licoricidin (LCD) is isolated from Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch, possesses anti-cancer activities.Licoricidin (LCD) inhibit SW480 cells (IC50=7.2 μM) by inducing cycle arrest, apoptosis and autophagy, and is a potential chemopreventive or chemotherapeutic agent against colorectal cancer[1].Licoricidin (LCD) inhibits Lung Metastasis by inhibition of tumor angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis as well as changes in the local microenvironment of tumor tissues the anticarcinogenic effect[1].licoricidin enhanced gemcitabine-induced cytotoxicity in Osteosarcoma (OS) cells by inactivation of the Akt and NF-κB pathways in vitro and in vivo[3]. Licoricidin blocks UVA-induced photoaging via ROS scavenging, limits the activity of MMP-1, it can be considered as an active ingredient in new topically applied anti-ageing formulations[4].

  • CAS Number: 30508-27-1
  • MF: C26H32O5
  • MW: 424.529
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: 1.2±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 610.8±55.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: 161.0-162.5℃
  • Flash Point: 323.2±31.5 °C

Clezutoclax

Clezutoclax is a potent payload and also a Bcl-XL inhibitor. Clezutoclax can be used in the synthesis of antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs)[1].

  • CAS Number: 1949843-71-3
  • MF: C83H102N12O24S2
  • MW: 1715.89
  • Catalog: ADC Cytotoxin
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

Toremifene-d6 citrate

Toremifene-d6 (Z-Toremifene-d6) citrate is the deuterium labeled Toremifene citrate. Toremifene citrate (Z-Toremifene citrate) is a second-generation selective estrogen-receptor modulator (SERM) in development for the prevention of osteoporosis. Toremifene citrate also potent inhibits infectious EBOV Zaire and Marburg (MARV) with IC50 of 0.07 µM and 2.6 µM, respectively[1][2].

  • CAS Number: 1246833-71-5
  • MF: C32H30D6ClNO8
  • MW: 604.12
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

CCI-007

CCI-007 (CCI 007) is a selective inhibitor of MLL-r, CALM-AF10 and SET-NUP214 leukemia with IC50 of 3.5 uM against MLL-r leukemia cell line PER-485; induced a rapid caspase-dependent apoptosis with mitochondrial depolarization within 24h treatment; altered the characteristic MLL-r gene expression signature in sensitive cells with downregulation of the expression of HOXA9, MEIS1, CMYC and BCL2, important drivers in MLL-r leukemia.

  • CAS Number: 939228-52-1
  • MF: C15H16N2O5S
  • MW: 336.362
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

Betulinic acid

Betulinic acid is a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid, acts as a eukaryotic topoisomerase I inhibitor, with an IC50 of 5 μM, and possesses anti-HIV, anti-malarial, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor properties.

  • CAS Number: 472-15-1
  • MF: C30H48O3
  • MW: 456.700
  • Catalog: HIV
  • Density: 1.1±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 550.0±33.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: 295-298 °C (dec.)(lit.)
  • Flash Point: 300.5±21.9 °C

THIORIDAZINE

Thioridazine, an antagonist of the dopamine receptor D2 family proteins, exhibits potent anti-psychotic and anti-anxiety activities. Thioridazine is also a potent inhibitor of PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathways with anti-angiogenic effect. Thioridazine shows antiproliferative and apoptosis induction effects in various types of cancer cells, with specificity on targeting cancer stem cells (CSCs)[1][2][3][4].

  • CAS Number: 50-52-2
  • MF: C21H26N2S2
  • MW: 370.574
  • Catalog: Bacterial
  • Density: 1.2±0.1 g/cm3
  • Boiling Point: 515.7±50.0 °C at 760 mmHg
  • Melting Point: 72-74°
  • Flash Point: 265.7±30.1 °C

GDC-2394

GDC-2394 is an orally active and selective NLRP3 inhibitor, and also inhibits IL-1β with IC50s of 0.4 μM (human IL-1β) and 0.1 μM (mouse IL-1β). GDC-2394 inhibits NLRP3-induced caspase-1 activity without inhibiting NLRC4-dependent inflammasome activation[1][2].

  • CAS Number: 2238822-07-4
  • MF: C20H25N5O4S
  • MW: 431.51
  • Catalog: Caspase
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

dMCL1-2

dMCL1-2 is a potent and selective degrader of myeloid cell leukemia 1 (MCL1) based on PROTAC, which binds to MCL1 with a KD of 30 nM. dMCL1-2 activats the cellular apoptosis machinery by degradation of MCL1[1].

  • CAS Number: 2351218-88-5
  • MF: C61H66N10O12S
  • MW: 1163.30
  • Catalog: Bcl-2 Family
  • Density: 1.43±0.1 g/cm3(Predicted)
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A

L-Ascorbic acid-d2

L-Ascorbic acid-d2 is the deuterium labeled L-Ascorbic acid. L-Ascorbic acid (L-Ascorbate), an electron donor, is an endogenous antioxidant agent. L-Ascorbic acid inhibits selectively Cav3.2 channels with an IC50 of 6.5 μM. L-Ascorbic acid is also a colla

  • CAS Number: 82977-10-4
  • MF: C6H6D2O6
  • MW: 178.14
  • Catalog: Apoptosis
  • Density: N/A
  • Boiling Point: N/A
  • Melting Point: N/A
  • Flash Point: N/A