D-Galactose

D-Galactose is a natural aldohexose and C-4 epimer of glucose.

Research Areas >> Neurological Disease

Natural Products >> Saccharides and Glycosides

Human Endogenous Metabolite

Galactose is important for the survival and virulence of bacteria. In Escherichia coli galactose is utilized by the Leloir pathway. Two anomers of d-galactose are used for different purposes, α-d-galactose as a carbon source and β-d-galactose for induction of UDP-galactose synthesis for biosynthetic glycosylation[1].

Chronic D-galactose exposure induces neurodegeneration by enhancing caspase-mediated apoptosis and inhibiting neurogenesis and neuron migration in mice, as well as increasing oxidative damage. In addition, D-galactose-induced toxicity in mice is a useful model for studying the mechanisms of neurodegeneration and neuroprotective drugs and agents[2]. D-galactose given by oral route causes cognitive impairments in rats which are accompanied by oxidative damage. Cognitive impairments is observed in the open-field test in the 4th and 6th weeks after d-gal administration, as well as an impairment in spatial memory in the radial maze test after the 6th week of d-gal administration[3].

Rats: D-galactose is dissolved in water for administration at the dose of 100 mg/kg of body weight, and given by oral gavage, once a day, over a period of 1, 2, 4, 6 or 8 weeks. Animals are randomized into two groups: control animals (receiving water by oral gavage) or d-gal animals (receiving D-galactose by oral gavage). The behavioral tests and biochemical analysis are undertaken on the1st, 2nd, 4th, 6th and 8th weeks after the last administration of d-gal[3]. Mice: Male adult C57BL/6 mice are randomly divided into three groups (control, D-galactose, and D-galactose plus α-LA). D-galactose (100 mg/kg) is injected subcutaneously (s.c.) daily into mice for 7 weeks. α-LA (100 mg/kg body weight) is injected peritoneally (i.p.) daily concomitantly for 7 weeks. All control animals are given saline[2].

[1]. Csiszovszki Z, et al. Structure and function of the D-galactose network in enterobacteria. MBio. 2011 Jun 28;2(4):e00053-11.

[2]. Cui X, et al. Chronic systemic D-galactose exposure induces memory loss, neurodegeneration, and oxidativedamage in mice: protective effects of R-alpha-lipoic acid. J Neurosci Res. 2006 Aug 15;84(3):647-54.

[3]. Budni J, et al. Oral administration of d-galactose induces cognitive impairments and oxidative damage in rats. Behav Brain Res. 2016 Apr 1;302:35-43.

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DATA ITEMS CITED :

12

MOLECULAR FORMULA :

C6-H12-O6

MOLECULAR WEIGHT :

180.18

HEALTH HAZARD DATA

ACUTE TOXICITY DATA

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

240 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 11-22 day(s) after conception

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Effects on Embryo or Fetus - fetotoxicity (except death, e.g., stunted fetus)

REFERENCE :

JOPDAB Journal of Pediatrics. (C.V. Mosby Co., 11830 Westline Industrial Dr., St. Louis, MO 63141) V.1- 1932- Volume(issue)/page/year: 70,676,1967

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

188 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 8-10 day(s) after conception

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Specific Developmental Abnormalities - eye/ear Reproductive - Fertility - post-implantation mortality (e.g. dead and/or resorbed implants per total number of implants)

REFERENCE :

ANENAG Annales d'Endocrinologie. (Masson Editeur, 120 Blvd. Saint-Germain, F-25280 Paris Cedex 06, France) V.1- 1939- Volume(issue)/page/year: 20,203,1959

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

440 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 1-22 day(s) after conception

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Effects on Embryo or Fetus - fetotoxicity (except death, e.g., stunted fetus) Reproductive - Effects on Newborn - growth statistics (e.g.%, reduced weight gain)

REFERENCE :

JOPDAB Journal of Pediatrics. (C.V. Mosby Co., 11830 Westline Industrial Dr., St. Louis, MO 63141) V.1- 1932- Volume(issue)/page/year: 67,438,1965

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

475 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 3-22 day(s) after conception

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Effects on Newborn - other postnatal measures or effects

REFERENCE :

SCIEAS Science. (American Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, 1333 H St., NW, Washington, DC 20005) V.1- 1895- Volume(issue)/page/year: 214,1145,1981

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

1000 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 3-22 day(s) after conception lactating female 21 day(s) post-birth

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Effects on Newborn - germ cell effects (in offspring)

REFERENCE :

SCIEAS Science. (American Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, 1333 H St., NW, Washington, DC 20005) V.1- 1895- Volume(issue)/page/year: 214,1145,1981

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

1260 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 1-21 day(s) after conception

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Fertility - abortion Reproductive - Effects on Newborn - viability index (e.g., # alive at day 4 per # born alive)

REFERENCE :

TJADAB Teratology, The International Journal of Abnormal Development. (Alan R. Liss, Inc., 41 E. 11th St., New York, NY 10003) V.1- 1968- Volume(issue)/page/year: 31,29A,1985

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

630 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 1-21 day(s) after conception

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Specific Developmental Abnormalities - eye/ear

REFERENCE :

TJADAB Teratology, The International Journal of Abnormal Development. (Alan R. Liss, Inc., 41 E. 11th St., New York, NY 10003) V.1- 1968- Volume(issue)/page/year: 33,46C,1986

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

16500 mg/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 8-12 day(s) after conception

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Effects on Newborn - live birth index (measured after birth)

REFERENCE :

TCMUD8 Teratogenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Mutagenesis. (Alan R. Liss, Inc., 41 E. 11th St., New York, NY 10003) V.1- 1980- Volume(issue)/page/year: 7,7,1987

TYPE OF TEST :

TDLo - Lowest published toxic dose

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE :

Oral

DOSE :

840 gm/kg

SEX/DURATION :

female 14 day(s) pre-mating

TOXIC EFFECTS :

Reproductive - Maternal Effects - ovaries, fallopian tubes Reproductive - Fertility - other measures of fertility

REFERENCE :

FESTAS Fertility and Sterility. (American Fertility Soc., 608 13th Ave. S, Birmingham, AL 35282) V.1- 1950- Volume(issue)/page/year: 49,522,1988 *** NIOSH STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT AND SURVEILLANCE DATA *** NIOSH OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE SURVEY DATA : NOHS - National Occupational Hazard Survey (1974) NOHS Hazard Code - 81790 No. of Facilities: 97 (estimated) No. of Industries: 2 No. of Occupations: 6 No. of Employees: 1707 (estimated) NOES - National Occupational Exposure Survey (1983) NOES Hazard Code - 81790 No. of Facilities: 148 (estimated) No. of Industries: 1 No. of Occupations: 7 No. of Employees: 2013 (estimated) No. of Female Employees: 1456 (estimated)